an official journal of: published by:
an official journal of: published by:
Editor in Chief: RAFFAELLO COSSU
Home

 

GO TO

MINING ALUMINUM FROM LANDFILLS: CHALLENGES, TECHNOLOGIES, AND THE CASE FORPRE-LANDFILL INTERVENTION.

  • Daniel Amponsah-Berko - Department of Chemical Engineering, Michigan Technological University, United States
  • Rebecca Kwofie - Department of Chemical Engineering, Michigan Technological University, United States
  • Timothy Eisele - Department of Chemical Engineering, Michigan Technological University, United States
  • Jonathan Robins - Department of Social Sciences, Michigan Technological University, United States
  • Pages

DOI 10.31025/2611-4135/2026.19573

Access restricted to subscribed members only

Released under All rights reserved

Copyright: © 2025 CISA Publisher

Abstract

Aluminum, a critical mineral in modern industry and energy transition, presents substantial environmental and economic burdens when produced through primary methods due to its high energy consumption and associated emissions. Although secondary production through recycling offers significant energy and emissions savings, it is widely believed that a large volume of aluminum still ends up in Municipal Solid Waste Landfills, particularly in the form of used beverage cans (UBCs) and other post-consumer products. This paper explores the feasibility and challenges of recovering aluminum from landfills through landfill mining (LFM). It presents an in-depth review of the historical and current state of aluminum waste generation in the United States, highlighting the growing accumulation of aluminum in landfills and the limitations of existing recycling practices. The study evaluates the physiochemical conditions of landfills affecting aluminum stability and outlines key technologies for material recovery, including air classification, magnetic separation, eddy current separation, electrostatic separation, sink-float techniques, and optical sorting. Despite technological advances, the recovery of aluminum from landfills remains hindered by numerous barriers such as technical inefficiencies, contamination, oxidation, high operational costs, regulatory ambiguity, and public opposition. The findings emphasize the importance of pre-landfill aluminum recovery as a more viable and sustainable strategy. By diverting aluminum from disposal before landfilling, the environmental, economic, and logistical burdens of post-disposal recovery can be substantially mitigated. This review advocates for upstream integration of aluminum recovery into waste management systems as a pathway toward resource efficiency, landfill space conservation, and reduced reliance on energy-intensive primary production.

Keywords

Editorial History

  • Received: 26 Sep 2025
  • Revised: 19 Feb 2026
  • Accepted: 06 Mar 2026
  • Available online: 31 Mar 2026

References

Agency, U. S. E. P. (2018a). Aluminum: Material-Specific Data

Agency, U. S. E. P. (2018b). Guide to the Facts and Figures Report about Materials, Waste and Recycling

Agency, U. S. E. P. (2018c). Studies, Summary Tables, and Data Related to the Advancing Sustainable Materials Management Report

Agency, U. S. E. P. ( 2020). Sustainable Materials Management (SMM) - Materials and Waste Management in the United States Key Facts and Figures

Ahmad, S., Steen, J., Zajac, T., Azadi, M., & Ali, S. H. (2025). Carbon emissions in metal manufacturing productivity: A global analysis of aluminium smelting. Energy Research & Social Science, 129, 104343

Al-Alimi, S., Yusuf, N. K., Ghaleb, A. M., Lajis, M. A., Shamsudin, S., Zhou, W., Altharan, Y. M., Abdulwahab, H. S., Saif, Y., & Didane, D. H. (2024a). Recycling aluminium for sustainable development: A review of different processing technologies in green manufacturing. Results in engineering, 102566

Al-Alimi, S., Yusuf, N. K., Ghaleb, A. M., Lajis, M. A., Shamsudin, S., Zhou, W., Altharan, Y. M., Abdulwahab, H. S., Saif, Y., & Didane, D. H. (2024b). Recycling aluminium for sustainable development: A review of different processing technologies in green manufacturing. Results in engineering, 23, 102566

Ali Hasanbeigi, P. D. (November 21, 2017). Aluminum Industry: 10 Emerging Technologies for Energy-efficiency and GHG Emissions Reduction. Global Efficiency Interligence. Retrieved June 19, 2025 from

Alicia Vallejo-Olivares, H. P., Mertol Gökelma, Hans J. Roven, Trond Furu, Anne Kvithyld, Gabriella Tranell. (October 7th,2020). Light Metals 2021: Compaction of aluminium foil and its effect on oxidation and recycling yield (L. Perander, Ed.). Springer Nature.
DOI 10.1007/978-3-030-65396-5_96

Anna, N., Camil, T., Constantin, I., Doina, R., & Violeta, M. L. (2026). Recycled Versus Primary Aluminum in European Automotive Industry: Trends, Challenges, and Opportunities. Recycling, 11(1), 19

Archambo, M., & Kawatra, S. (2021). Red mud: fundamentals and new avenues for utilization. Mineral processing and extractive metallurgy review, 42(7), 427–450

Ashkenazi, D. (2019). How aluminum changed the world: A metallurgical revolution through technological and cultural perspectives. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 143, 101–113

Association, T. A. (2024, 12/05/2024). Amid Recycling Rate Decline, Aluminum Beverage Can Remains Most Recycled Drinks Package. https://www.aluminum.org/news/amid-recycling-rate-decline-aluminum-beverage-can-remains-most-recycled-drinks-package

Blengini, G., Mathieux, F., Mancini, L., Nyberg, M., & Viegas, H. (2019). Recovery of critical and other raw materials from mining waste and landfills. State of Play on Existing Practices, 1–125

Blomsma, F., & Tennant, M. (2020). Circular economy: Preserving materials or products? Introducing the Resource States framework. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 156, 104698

Brooks, L., Gaustad, G., Gesing, A., Mortvedt, T., & Freire, F. (2019). Ferrous and non-ferrous recycling: challenges and potential technology solutions. Waste management, 85, 519–528

Buffington, J. (2012). The beverage can in the United States: achieving a 100% recycled aluminum can through supply chain innovation. Jom, 64(8), 923–932

Burlakovs, J., Kriipsalu, M., Klavins, M., Bhatnagar, A., Vincevica-Gaile, Z., Stenis, J., Jani, Y., Mykhaylenko, V., Denafas, G., & Turkadze, T. (2017). Paradigms on landfill mining: From dump site scavenging to ecosystem services revitalization. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 123, 73–84

Cadavid, J. Q. (2025). The UBC dilemma: Why the US is falling behind in recycling aluminium beverage can [Research]

Calder, G. V., & Stark, T. D. (2010). Aluminum reactions and problems in municipal solid waste landfills. Practice Periodical of Hazardous, Toxic, and Radioactive Waste Management, 14(4), 258–265

Capuzzi, S., & Timelli, G. (2018). Preparation and melting of scrap in aluminum recycling: A review. Metals, 8(4), 249

Center-USGS, N. M. I. (2022). Aluminum Statistics and Information. https://www.usgs.gov/centers/national-minerals-information-center/aluminum-statistics-and-information

Chen, K., Bao, S., Li, J., Li, J., Shi, M., Shi, X., & Ma, J. (2025). Research Progress on Inert Anode Materials for Aluminum Electrolysis. TMS Annual Meeting & Exhibition,

Chen, W.-Q., & Graedel, T. E. (2012). Dynamic analysis of aluminum stocks and flows in the United States: 1900–2009. Ecological Economics, 81, 92–102

Choate, W. T., & Green, J. A. (2003). US energy requirements for aluminum production: historical perspective, theoretical limits and new opportunities. US Department of Energy, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy

Cimpan, C., Maul, A., Jansen, M., Pretz, T., & Wenzel, H. (2015). Central sorting and recovery of MSW recyclable materials: A review of technological state-of-the-art, cases, practice and implications for materials recycling. Journal of Environmental Management, 156, 181–199

Cremers, D. A., & Radziemski, L. J. (2006). History and fundamentals of LIBS. Laser Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy: Fundamentals and Applications, 1, 1–39

Cui, J., & Forssberg, E. (2003). Mechanical recycling of waste electric and electronic equipment: a review. Journal of hazardous materials, 99(3), 243–263

Dascalescu, L., Zeghloul, T., & Iuga, A. (2016). Electrostatic separation of metals and plastics from waste electrical and electronic equipment. In WEEE recycling (pp. 75–106). Elsevier

David, E., & Kopac, J. (2013). Aluminum recovery as a product with high added value using aluminum hazardous waste. Journal of hazardous materials, 261, 316–324

directory, S. (2025). Why is aluminum recycling so effective?

Einhäupl, P., Van Acker, K., Peremans, H., & Van Passel, S. (2021). The conceptualization of societal impacts of landfill mining–A system dynamics approach. Journal of Cleaner Production, 296, 126351

Energy, U. S. D. o. (2023). Critical Minerals & Materials Program

EPA, U. S. (2023). Facts and Figures about Materials, Waste and Recycling

Ferronato, N., & Torretta, V. (2019). Waste mismanagement in developing countries: A review of global issues. International journal of environmental research and public health, 16(6), 1060

Fortier, S. M., Nassar, N. T., Lederer, G. W., Brainard, J., Gambogi, J., & McCullough, E. A. (2018). Draft critical mineral list—Summary of methodology and background information—US Geological Survey technical input document in response to Secretarial Order No. 3359 (2331-1258)

Frändegård, P., Krook, J., & Svensson, N. (2015). Integrating remediation and resource recovery: On the economic conditions of landfill mining. Waste Management, 42, 137–147

Gaines, L. L. (1981). Energy and materials use in the production and recycling of consumer-goods packaging

Gesing, A., & Wolanski, R. (2001). Recycling light metals from end-of-life vehicle. Jom, 53(11), 21–23

Ghisellini, P., Cialani, C., & Ulgiati, S. (2016). A review on circular economy: the expected transition to a balanced interplay of environmental and economic systems. Journal of Cleaner Production, 114, 11–32

Gitlitz, J. (2005). Drink and deposit. Waste Management World

Gitlitz, J. S. (2002). Trashed Cans: The Global Environmental Impacts of Aluminum Can Wasting in America. Container Recycling Institute

Goh, K. C., Kurniawan, T. A., Othman, M. H. D., Jumaniyozov, K., Aziz, F., Anouzla, A., Ali, I., Khan, M. I., Alsultan, G. A., & Zhang, D. (2025). Promoting landfill mining for sustainable resource recovery, circular economy, and climate mitigation: a review. Frontiers in Environmental Science, 13, 1643195

Green, J. A. (2007). Aluminum recycling and processing for energy conservation and sustainability. ASM International

Guide, A. (2025). An aluminium beverage can. Aluminum Guide. Retrieved 08/05/2025 from

Gundupalli, S. P., Hait, S., & Thakur, A. (2017). A review on automated sorting of source-separated municipal solid waste for recycling. Waste Management, 60, 56–74

Gurell, J., Bengtson, A., Falkenström, M., & Hansson, B. (2012). Laser induced breakdown spectroscopy for fast elemental analysis and sorting of metallic scrap pieces using certified reference materials. Spectrochimica Acta Part B: Atomic Spectroscopy, 74, 46–50

Gurusamy, S., & Thangam, R. S. P. (2023). Potential health risk assessment of contaminants in soil-like material recovered from landfill mining. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 195(2), 330

Hariyani, D., Hariyani, P., Mishra, S., & Sharma, M. K. (2025). A literature review on waste management treatment and control techniques. Sustainable Futures, 9, 100728

Hernandez Parrodi, J. C., Lucas, H., Gigantino, M., Sauve, G., Esguerra, J. L., Einhaupl, P., Vollprecht, D., Pomberger, R., Friedrich, B., & Van Acker, K. (2019). Integration of resource recovery into current waste management through (enhanced) landfill mining. Detritus, 8, 141–156

Hogland, W., Hogland, M., & Marques, M. (2011). Material recovery, energy utilization and economics of landfill mining in the EU (directive) perspective. Proceedings of “Sustainable Solid Waste Management In Eastern Europe-Prospects For The Future

Huang, Z., Zhu, J., Wu, X., Qiu, R., Xu, Z., & Ruan, J. (2021). Eddy current separation can be used in separation of non-ferrous particles from crushed waste printed circuit boards. Journal of Cleaner Production, 312, 127755

Hull, R. M., Krogmann, U., & Strom, P. F. (2005). Composition and characteristics of excavated materials from a New Jersey landfill. Journal of environmental engineering, 131(3), 478–490

Igwegbe, C. A., López-Maldonado, E. A., Landázuri, A. C., Ovuoraye, P. E., Ogbu, A. I., Vela-García, N., & Białowiec, A. (2024). Sustainable municipal landfill leachate management: Current practices, challenges, and future directions. Desalination and Water Treatment, 100709

Institute, C. R. (2025). Improving Efficiency and Sustainability in Aluminum Beverage Can Recycling, January 2025

Institute, T. A. A. a. C. M. (2024). The Aluminum Can Advantage:

Sustainability Key Performance

Indicators

Jain, M., Kumar, A., & Kumar, A. (2023). Landfill mining: A review on material recovery and its utilization challenges. Process Safety and Environmental Protection, 169, 948–958

Johansson, N., Krook, J., & Eklund, M. (2017). The institutional capacity for a resource transition—A critical review of Swedish governmental commissions on landfill mining. Environmental Science & Policy, 70, 46–53

Johansson, O., & Pettersson, M. (2022). Environmental law issues in connection with landfill mining. Detritus, 18, 77–84

Jones, P. T., Geysen, D., Tielemans, Y., Van Passel, S., Pontikes, Y., Blanpain, B., Quaghebeur, M., & Hoekstra, N. (2013). Enhanced Landfill Mining in view of multiple resource recovery: a critical review. Journal of Cleaner Production, 55, 45–55

Kannan, E., Yuvarani, B., Sanjaykumar, S., Tamilvanan, T., Vasanth, J., & Manikandan, S. (2025). A High Efficient and Cost Effective Waste Sorting Solution using Advanced Sensors and AI. 2025 5th International Conference on Trends in Material Science and Inventive Materials (ICTMIM),

Kelly, S., & Apelian, D. (2016). Automotive aluminum recycling at end of life: a grave-to-gate analysis. Worcester Polytechnic Institute

Kirchherr, J., Reike, D., & Hekkert, M. (2017). Conceptualizing the circular economy: An analysis of 114 definitions. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 127, 221–232

Kostakis, I., Halkos, G., & Sardianou, E. (2025). Sustainability in municipal waste recycling: An empirical investigation of economic and institutional determinants. Global Economics Research, 100018

Krook, J., & Baas, L. (2013). Getting serious about mining the technosphere: a review of recent landfill mining and urban mining research. Journal of Cleaner Production, 55, 1–9

Krook, J., Svensson, N., & Eklund, M. (2012). Landfill mining: A critical review of two decades of research. Waste Management, 32(3), 513–520

Kulas, D., Amponsah-Berko, D., Eisele, T., & Handler, R. Landfill Mining for Aluminum and Copper Recovery: An Economic and Environmental Feasibility Study. 2025 AIChE Annual Meeting,

Lawal, S. O. (2024). The economics of recycling: A review compiled with tax and subsidiary, implication for government, decision-makers, enterprises, community, and analysis cost/benefit and market. ASEAN Journal of Economic and Economic Education, 3(2), 165–188

Lee, H., Coulon, F., & Wagland, S. (2023). The influence of humic acid on metal (loid) s leaching in landfill leachate for enhancing landfill mining. Science of the Total Environment, 896, 165250

Li, Y., Yue, Q., He, J., Zhao, F., & Wang, H. (2020). When will the arrival of China’s secondary aluminum era? Resources Policy, 65, 101573

Lindstrom, S. (2024). Transitioning to a Circular Economy: Evaluating National Waste Management Policies. Future-Environmental Policy and Sustainable Development, 1(2)

Lucas, H. I., López, C. G., Parrodi, J. C. H., Vollprecht, D., Raulf, K., Pomberger, R., Pretz, T., & Friedrich, B. (2019). Quality assessment of nonferrous metals recovered by means of landfill mining: A case study in Belgium. Detritus, 8(December), 79–90

Martin, J. W., Stark, T. D., Thalhamer, T., Gerbasi-Graf, G. T., & Gortner, R. E. (2013). Detection of aluminum waste reactions and waste fires. Journal of Hazardous, Toxic, and Radioactive Waste, 17(3), 164–174

Miteva, A., & Hodjaoglu, G. Applications of Recycled Aluminum in the Modern Food Industry. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 114, 18–31

Morawski, C. (2010). Single stream uncovered. Resource Recycling, 21–25

Munshi, B. ELYSIS™ Inert-Anode Aluminium Smelting: Electrochemistry, Scale-Up, and the India Adoption Pathway

Mutz, S., Chatziavgoustis, T., & Pretz, T. (2005). Sorting of aluminum and its alloys within the European automobile recycling. Proceedings of 5th International Exhibition & Conference on Environmental Technology, Athens Greece, 3-6 February, C81,

Padamata, S. K., Yasinskiy, A., & Polyakov, P. (2021). A review of secondary aluminum production and its byproducts. Jom, 73(9), 2603–2614

Parrodi, J. C. H., Höllen, D., & Pomberger, R. (2018). Potential and main technological challenges for material and energy recovery from fine fractions of landfill mining: A critical review. Detritus, 3(september 2018), 19–29

Pecorini, I., & Iannelli, R. (2020). Characterization of excavated waste of different ages in view of multiple resource recovery in landfill mining. Sustainability, 12(5), 1780

Pereira, A. C. (2025). From can to sheet: A critical review of aluminum can recycling processes, technologies, and sustainability dimensions (2020–2025). Revista FT, 10(2), 1026–1019

Pourbaix, M. (1974). Atlas of Electrochemical Equilibria in Aqueoes Solution (N. A. o. C. Engineers, Ed. 2 ed.). National Association of Corrosion Engineers

Quaghebeur, M., Laenen, B., Geysen, D., Nielsen, P., Pontikes, Y., Van Gerven, T., & Spooren, J. (2013). Characterization of landfilled materials: screening of the enhanced landfill mining potential. Journal of Cleaner Production, 55, 72–83

Quinn, E. Circular economy and the potential for extended producer responsibility policies

Raabe, D. (2023). The materials science behind sustainable metals and alloys. Chemical reviews, 123(5), 2436–2608

Rabinovich, D. (2013). The allure of aluminium. Nature Chemistry, 5(1), 76–76

Ratcliffe, A., Prent, O., & van Vossen, W. (2012). Feasibility of material recovery from landfills (MFL) in the European Union. The ISWA World Waste Congress,

Recovery, U. S. E. P. A. O. o. R. C. a. (2014). Municipal Solid Waste Generation,Recycling, and Disposal in the United States: Facts and Figures. A methodology Document

Saevarsdottir, G., & Kvande, H. (2025). Development of the Carbon Footprint of Primary Aluminum Production. TMS Annual Meeting & Exhibition,

Sariatli, F. (2017). Linear economy versus circular economy: a comparative and analyzer study for optimization of economy for sustainability. Visegrad Journal on Bioeconomy and Sustainable Development, 6(1), 31–34

Shapiro, M., & Galperin, V. (2005). Air classification of solid particles: a review. Chemical Engineering and Processing: Process Intensification, 44(2), 279–285

Shen, A., & Zhang, J. (2024). Technologies for CO2 emission reduction and low-carbon development in primary aluminum industry in China: A review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 189, 113965

Silveira, A., Cella, M., Tanabe, E., & Bertuol, D. (2018). Application of tribo-electrostatic separation in the recycling of plastic wastes. Process Safety and Environmental Protection, 114, 219–228

Smith, Y. R., Nagel, J. R., & Rajamani, R. K. (2019). Eddy current separation for recovery of non-ferrous metallic particles: A comprehensive review. Minerals Engineering, 133, 149–159

Söderholm, P., & Ekvall, T. (2020). Metal markets and recycling policies: impacts and challenges. Mineral Economics, 33(1), 257–272

Stark, T. D., Martin, J. W., Gerbasi, G. T., Thalhamer, T., & Gortner, R. E. (2012). Aluminum waste reaction indicators in a municipal solid waste landfill. Journal of geotechnical and geoenvironmental engineering, 138(3), 252–261

Staub, C. (2020). Equipment upgrades drive greater UBC recovery

Tabereaux, A. T., & Peterson, R. D. (2024). Aluminum production. In Treatise on process metallurgy (pp. 625–676). Elsevier

Taelman, S. E., Tonini, D., Wandl, A., & Dewulf, J. (2018). A holistic sustainability framework for waste management in European cities: Concept development. Sustainability, 10(7), 2184

Thakur, V., & Kalra, S. (2026). Approaches to Extended Producer Responsibility: Fostering Sustainable Consumption and Circular Economy. In Green Horizons: Advancing Climate Solutions Through Green Finance, Circular Economy, and ESG (pp. 291–316). Springer

Trushna, T., Krishnan, K., Soni, R., Singh, S., Kalyanasundaram, M., Annerstedt, K. S., Pathak, A., Purohit, M., Lundbog, C. S., & Sabde, Y. (2024). Interventions to promote household waste segregation: A systematic review. Heliyon, 10(2)

Van Passel, S., Dubois, M., Eyckmans, J., De Gheldere, S., Ang, F., Jones, P. T., & Van Acker, K. (2013). The economics of enhanced landfill mining: private and societal performance drivers. Journal of Cleaner Production, 55, 92–102

van Vossen, W., & Prent, O. (2013). Feasibility study sustainable material and energy recovery from landfills in Europe. ISTANBUL3WCONGRESS 2013, 347

Veit, H. M., Diehl, T. R., Salami, A. P., Rodrigues, J. d. S., Bernardes, A. M., & Tenório, J. A. S. (2005). Utilization of magnetic and electrostatic separation in the recycling of printed circuit boards scrap. Waste management, 25(1), 67–74

Velenturf, A. P., & Purnell, P. (2017). Resource recovery from waste: Restoring the balance between resource scarcity and waste overload. Sustainability, 9(9), 1603

Vermeșan, H., Tiuc, A.-E., & Purcar, M. (2019). Advanced recovery techniques for waste materials from IT and telecommunication equipment printed circuit boards. Sustainability, 12(1), 74

Vollprecht, D., Machiels, L., & Jones, P. T. (2021). The EU training network for resource recovery through enhanced landfill mining—A review. Processes, 9(2), 394

Wagner, T. P., & Raymond, T. (2015). Landfill mining: Case study of a successful metals recovery project. Waste management, 45, 448–457

Wang, J., Shi, A., Yue, D., Wang, C., Liu, Y., & Shi, Y. (2024). Resources Recovery from Landfill Leachate: Current Status, Challenges, and Prospects. A Review of Landfill Leachate: Characterization Leachate Environment Impacts and Sustainable Treatment Methods, 215–238

Wen, J., Yu, W., Yuan, H., Chen, H., Xiong, T., & Yang, F. (2024). A new strategy for extracting aluminum and iron from red mud via vacuum thermal reduction, alkali-leaching and magnetic separation. Journal of Cleaner Production, 485, 144409

Wen, P., Li, X., Shi, G., Wang, Z., & Ma, Z. (2025). Age and hydrogeological conditions of landfill site control groundwater pollution in landfill site. Waste management, 208, 115171

Wilts, H., Von Gries, N., & Bahn-Walkowiak, B. (2016). From waste management to resource efficiency—The need for policy mixes. Sustainability, 8(7), 622

Xia, Y., He, P., Shao, L., & Zhang, H. (2017). Metal distribution characteristic of MSWI bottom ash in view of metal recovery. Journal of Environmental Sciences, 52, 178–189

Zhou, C., Gong, Z., Hu, J., Cao, A., & Liang, H. (2015). A cost-benefit analysis of landfill mining and material recycling in China. Waste Management, 35, 191–198

Related Contents